1. Dean of Institute of New  Structural Economics, Dean of Institute of South-South Cooperation and Development, and Honorary Dean of National School of Development, Peking University

2. Researcher at Institute of New Structural Economics at Peking University and Director of Curriculum Development and Case Report Center at Peking University

Deconstructing Western Modernization

In the vast tapestry of human development, modernization remains a relatively fleeting and localized phenomenon; only a select few countries have achieved modernization in the past two centuries. Viewed through the lens of new structural economics, grounded in the theory of social form rooted in endowment structures, the diversity of human civilization stems from the differences in endowment structures worldwide. The essence of modernization lies not in blind emulation of Western superstructural, but in reshaping the production structure determined by one's own endowment structure that governs societal change, which then triggers corresponding adjustments in superstructure models. While Western developed countries took the lead in completing the industrial revolution, escaping the Malthusian trap, and establishing superstructure models that align with their economic structure, their early endeavors were markedly influenced by warfare, colonization, and capitalist exploitation—essentially a route of uncivilized modernization. In contrast, after enduring over a century of bloody struggles for national sovereignty and under the leadership of the CPC, China, with nearly one-fifth of the world population, has created a new form of human civilization within just over 70 years by embracing a socialist system domestically and advocating equitable, peace-oriented economic engagements internationally.

The Era of Post-Western-Centric Modernization Has Arrived

There is no denying that prevalent theories of modernization, and even broader conceptions thereof, are predominantly shaped by Western-centric perspectives. Even global historians, who strive to mitigate Western-centric biases, still equate global modernization with the spread of the European triumvirate of revolutions—scientific, industrial, and political—casting the Western post-modernization superstructure as the epitome and conduit of modernity. The emergence and global popularity of the Western-centric modernization worldview can be attributed to three primary factors: the long- term economic and military supremacy of the West following the Industrial Revolution, the deliberate construction of a popular narrative depicting the "Western story" with beguiling and pacifying undertones, and the inclination of intellectuals and the general population in non-Western countries (the developing world) to seek enlightenment from the West. For example, the share of Europe and America in global manufacturing output increased from less than one-fourth in 1750 to over four-fifths in 1900. However, the Western world deliberately obscured its own ascent in historical chronicles and theoretical frameworks, haughtily deeming itself superior. On many occasions, this belief further reinforced their pre-existing notion of Christian superiority. Concurrently, the non-Western world subscribed to the narrative of Western ascendancy, mimicking it to a certain extent but with limited effect, akin to the folly of imitating others without understanding the essence.

Despite efforts by global historians such as Arnold Joseph Toynbee and Leften Stavros Stavrianos to break free from Western-centric historiography and highlight the diversity of human civilizations, the absence of a resurgence in non-Western civilizations has hindered scholars and the general public from fully escaping the grip of Western cultural supremacy. Consequently, they have been unable to objectively examine the origins of human civilizational diversity and move beyond the framework of Western-centric modernization. China's unique path to modernization, anchored in its rich civilization, has given rise to a new form of human civilization, challenging the prevailing Western-centric worldview. This holds profound theoretical significance, as evidenced by General Secretary Xi Jinping's characterization of the current era as one of "major changes unseen in a century." An illustrative example is the transformation of global economic dynamics. The Eight-Nation Alliance, invading Beijing at the beginning of the 20th century, represented the world's major powers and advanced industrialized countries, which collectively contributed 50.4% of global gross domestic product (GDP) by purchasing power parity (PPP). In 2000, a similar group of eight countries emerged comprising the most advanced industrialized countries, accounting for 47% of global GDP. However, by 2018, their aggregate economic output, measured by PPP, had declined to only 34.7% of the global total. Meanwhile, in 2000, China's economic output, measured by market exchange rates, constituted only 3.6% of the global total and 11.8% of the United States. Yet, by 2021, China's economy made up 18.5% of the global total, surpassing 70% of the United States' economy. If measured by PPP, China had surpassed the United States in 2014 to become the world's largest economy. For the first time since the New Culture Movement, it has become possible for Chinese to re-examine the frame of reference for modernization with confidence.

The Essence of Modernization Lies in Structural Transformation Rather Than Westernization

The ascendancy of Western countries, in reality, is a relatively brief episode in humanity's extensive historical narrative, spanning just the past two centuries. Consequently, modernization should not be defined within the scope of Westernization. While this perspective gains traction, there exists a spectrum of viewpoints regarding the definition of modernization. Scholars across diverse fields—ranging from development economics, transformation economics, and economics, and development sociology to transformation sociology, development politics, and transformation politics—have explored this concept from different perspectives. Drawing from the paradigm of new structural economics, which finds its roots in Marxist historical materialism, we advocate for a definition of modernization that transcends comparisons with developed countries, but instead centers on a country's own economic base (its endowment and production structures, i.e., industries and technologies) and the corresponding superstructure (finance, education, politics, culture, etc.) that adapts accordingly. We contend that modern society should be identified in relation to its relative position compared to pre-modern societies, which means, from the perspective of human developmental history, escaping the Malthusian trap of pre-modernization.

Humanity's journey as a species originated in the Middle Paleolithic period, roughly between 250,000 and 50,000 years ago. During that time, humans primarily relied on gathering activities to secure food and essential resources vital for survival. Subsequent milestones in human history witnessed the advent of agriculture across various regions and timeframes, marking a groundbreaking transition in human history from hunting and gathering to food production. Influenced by distinct natural environments across continents, agricultural structures evolved differently worldwide due to varying endowment structures, species origins, and challenges in domesticating plants and animals, thus contributing to the formation of diverse ancient civilizations. However, constrained by limited natural resources shaping agricultural endowment structures, endeavors in pre- modern societies to expand into new territories, develop new farming techniques, or understand natural laws were often insufficient to improve living standards in tandem with population growth. This dynamic, famously encapsulated as the Malthusian trap, dictated societal trajectories during pre-modern eras. It was not until the onset of the Industrial Revolution that countries like Britain managed to break free from the Malthusian trap and paved the way toward human modernization across diverse fields—ranging from development economics, transformation economics, and development sociology to transformation sociology, development politics, and transformation politics—have explored this concept from different perspectives. Drawing from the paradigm of new structural economics, which finds its roots in Marxist historical materialism, we advocate for a definition of modernization that transcends comparisons with developed countries, but instead centers on a country's own economic base (its endowment and production structures, i.e., industries and technologies) and the corresponding superstructure (finance, education, politics, culture, etc.) that adapts accordingly. We contend that modern society should be identified in relation to its relative position compared topre- modern societies, which means, from the perspective of human developmental history, escaping the Malthusian trap of pre-modernization.

Humanity's journey as a species originated in the Middle Paleolithic period, roughly between 250,000 and 50,000 years ago. During that time, humans primarily relied on gathering activities to secure food and essential resources vital for survival. Subsequent milestones in human history witnessed the advent of agriculture across various regions and timeframes, marking a groundbreaking transition in human history from hunting and gathering to food production. Influenced by distinct natural environments across continents, agricultural structures evolved differently worldwide due to varying endowment structures, species origins, and challenges in domesticating plants and animals, thus contributing to the formation of diverse ancient civilizations. However, constrained by limited natural resources shaping agricultural endowment structures, endeavors in pre- modern societies to expand into new territories, develop new farming techniques, or understand natural laws were often insufficient to improve living standards in tandem with population growth. This dynamic, famously encapsulated as the Malthusian trap, dictated societal trajectories during pre-modern eras. It was not until the onset of the Industrial Revolution that countries like Britain managed to break free from the Malthusian trap and paved the way toward human modernization.

Western Expansionary (Aggressive) Modernization and Its Theoretical Critique

The established Western capitalist countries embarked on a path of modernization through brutal colonial campaigns and harsh wartime capitalism, accumulating primitive capital and catalyzing the scientific and industrial revolutions. These efforts led to continuous industrial upgrades and technological advancements, resulting in heightened productivity. Concurrently, various facets of modernization within the superstructure—society, politics, and culture—continued to progress. This trajectory enabled those Western countries not only to escape the Malthusian trap but also to assert global dominance, creating a profound disparity with Asian, African, and Latin American countries, which often found themselves subjected to colonial or semi-colonial subjugation and exploitation. By 1800, Europeans controlled approximately 35% of the world's land area, a figure that ballooned to 67% by 1878 and exceeded 84% by 1914, In the early 1800s, Americans were already growing opium in Türkiye, fueling the opium trade to support universities on the East Coast and Bell's invention of telephone. However, historical research indicates that the West did not always hold an initial advantage over the East before the Industrial Revolution. In fact, in 1750, China accounted for 33% of global manufacturing output, while India contributed 25%. However, as Prof. Wen Yi revealed in his work, the West spent over a century fabricating a highly deceptive narrative of the popular historical view known as the "Western story," stating that "it is the unique democratic system and rational thinking of ancient Greece and the legal legacy of ancient Rome and Germanic tribes that laid the institutional foundation for the emergence of modern Western scientific and industrial civilization." This subsequently evolved into a post-Renaissance democratic parliamentary system and rule of law society, distinguishing it from Eastern despotism. This inclusive parliamentary system and rule of law paved the way for an inclusive capitalist economic system, characterized by principles such as contractual integrity, individual liberation, safeguarding of property rights, and checks on autocratic power, thereby effectively reducing transaction costs across various markets, including intellectual and commodity exchanges, fostering wealth accumulation, spurring scientific innovation, and triggering both scientific and industrial revolutions.

China's remarkable economic growth within its distinctive socialist framework has astonished and perplexed the world. Many believe that sustaining such growth miracle hinges on the rapid adoption of Western political systems, yet Zhang Xiazhun challenges this notion, asserting that the so-called advanced systems prevalent in developed countries today, such as democratic processes, bureaucratic structures, intellectual property rights, corporate governance practices, financial systems, welfare policies, and labor regulations, are primarily outcomes of the industrial revolution or superficial aspects of modernization rather than fundamental catalysts. Despite this, Western theories, such as new institutional economics, which propagate the "Western story," continue to gain prominence even though they tend to conflate cause and effect. On the other hand, the Marxist narrative that "the base largely determines the superstructure, but the superstructure also has an influence back upon the base," which aligns with the facts of human historical development, is experiencing diminishing influence in various theories, especially mainstream economic theories. Therefore, there arises a pressing need to infuse social sciences, particularly economics, with a more distinctly Marxist lens drawn from China's modernization experiences. Such an approach can cultivate a Chinese-centric paradigm in social sciences and economics, effectively guiding China's socialist modernization endeavors and offering insights for other developing countries navigating the path to modernization.

Few Successful Modernizers Emerged Under the Colonial Rule of Western Modernization Theories

On January 23, 1826, the Spanish flag came down at the Callao Port of Peru, marking the end of Spain's more than 300 years of colonial rule over Peru and the overall independence of Latin America. Subsequently, on December 30, 1922, the Soviet Union was established, becoming the largest country in the world at that time. Between 1944 and 1985, a significant wave of independence swept through 96 countries, representing about one-third of the global population. However, among the nearly 200 original developing economies, only China's Taiwan and South Korea have transitioned from low-income to middle-income economies and subsequently high-income economies. The Chinese mainland was soon to join their ranks, emerging as the only large country to achieve this progression. Even among the 101 middle-income economies in 1960, a staggering 87% struggled to break free from the middle-income trap and ascend to high-income levels over the ensuing half-century. Among the 13 economies that did break through, eight were either Western European neighboring countries with initially small gaps or oil-producing nations, with the remaining five including Japan and the Four Asian Tigers. The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 came on the heels of its ambitious claims of constructing an advanced socialist society at the 24th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. According to World Bank figures from 2017, a significant portion of the global population lived below the international poverty line of USD 1.9 per day, totaling 6.99 billion individuals, representing 9.3% of the global population. Notably, Sub- Saharan Africa alone harbored a staggering 433 million individuals living below this extreme poverty line. The frustrating modernization journey of late-developing countries indicates that, whether in developed or developingnations, most of the past modernization theories have largely proven to be futile.. As of today, countries across Africa, South Asia, and Eastern Europe have not yet successfully found a path to modernization, facing challenges such as the poverty trap in Africa, the middle-income trap in Latin America, and the transition trap in Eastern Europe.

In the pursuit of building a modern socialist country in all respects, China must uphold the "Four-sphere Confidence" (i.e., confidence in the path, theory, system and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics) and formulate a modernization theory tailored to our distinctive national conditions. As the report to the 20th CPC National Congress highlighted, "Since the 18th National Congress, with the courage to make theoretical explorations and innovations, our Party has, from an entirely new perspective, deepened its understanding of the laws that underlie governance by a communist party, the development of socialism, and the evolution of human society. It has achieved major theoretical innovations, which are encapsulated in the Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era." Just as there are no bounds to practice, there is no end to theoretical innovation. To keep advancing theoretical innovation on the basis of practical experience, we must, first of all, gain a good command of the worldview and methodology of the Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era and adhere to and make good use of its stances, viewpoints, and methods. This involves putting people first, maintaining self-confidence, independence, and originality, alongside innovation, problem-solving, systemic thinking, global perspective, and a people-centered approach that respects their needs, ingenuity, and wisdom. We must remain firm in our conviction in Marxism and socialism with Chinese characteristics and strengthen our confidence in the path, theory, system, and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics. By consistently proposing new ideas, perspectives, and methods, we can effectively address challenges, offer scientifically grounded approaches, and propel the endeavors of both the Party and the state. Our overarching objective is to devise solutions deeply rooted in our distinctive national context, comprehensively planned, and tailored to our unique circumstances, ultimately fostering sustained progress and prosperity.

Blueprint for Chinese Path to Modernization

The Quest for Chinese Path to Modernization

From the Opium Wars to the First Sino-Japanese War, and from the Second Sino-Japanese War to the War to Resist US Aggression and Aid Korea, the Chinese people have valiantly fought for over a century to secure national independence and establish the modern China we see today. Under the leadership of the CPC for just over 70 years, nearly one-fifth of the world's population has been lifted out of poverty. Notably, after embracing the policy of reform and opening-up, China swiftly got out of the Malthusian trap within a few decades, steadfastly upholding and refining the socialist system with Chinese characteristics. This has ushered in a transformative era of modernization within the rich tapestry of China's five-millennia civilization. The escape from the Malthusian trap represents a shared aspect of modernization itself, as well as between modernization in China and the West. However, unlike Western methods involving warfare, colonization, and the imposition of capitalist exploitation systems, China opted for a transformative approach by embracing socialism internally and, on the global stage, fostering peaceful and equitable economic and trade exchanges. For instance, China has never sought overseas colonies or maintained military bases with colonial intentions. It stands as the primary trading partner for over 120 countries and regions, and the second-largest for more than 70 others. Remarkably, China ranks either first or second in trade partnerships for over 90% of countries and territories globally. Therefore, at the crux of the distinct trajectories of modernization between China and the West lies the stark contrast between civilized and aggressive paths toward progress. China has, in essence, charted a pioneering course, contributing a unique chapter to the mosaic of human civilization.

China's successful transition toward a civilized path of modernization stems not only from the cultural inclinations of the Chinese nation toward peace but also from the assimilation of experiences and the adoption of a pragmatic and tailored approach to modernization that suits national conditions. This concept, initially introduced by Deng Xiaoping, the chief architect of China's socialist reform and opening-up, aimed to caution against hasty actions and instead set realistic developmental goals that resonate with China's distinctive national conditions. This involved rejecting the wholesale adoption of Western models and championing a self-determined path for development. Since 1978, China's economic transformation has diverged from the Washington Consensus. Under the leadership of the CPC, China embarked on gradual reforms that advocate for emancipating the mind and seeking truth from facts. While many economists initially doubted this method would be less than ideal compared to planned economies, fearing it would exacerbate corruption and reduce economic efficiency, the outcomes proved otherwise. Through this transitional strategy, struggling enterprises received protective subsidies, ensuring economic stability. Concurrently, opening up entry to industries with comparative advantages and competitive strengths accelerated economic development and capital accumulation.

Formerly non-competitive, capital-intensive industries gradually realigned with comparative advantages, paving the way for future reforms. In contrast, countries strictly adhering to the Washington Consensus experienced economic collapses, stagnation, and prevalent issues such as corruption and wealth inequality. Today, successful countries that have effectively transitioned have followed an unconventional path—one characterized by a gradual, dual-track approach to transition, initially deemed illogical by mainstream economists.

Great Changes in the New Era

The report to the 20th CPC National Congress highlighted notable accomplishments in reform and opening-up and socialist modernization, as well as great advancements in Party building. These achievements have established a robust foundation, facilitated favorable conditions, and ensured essential support for further progress. However, there exist longstanding and pressing issues, both, demanding immediate attention. In response, the CPC Central Committee has shown strategic foresight, decisive decision-making, and unwavering resolve in tackling challenges. Through a series of strategic measures and transformative initiatives, the CPC has achieved breakthroughs and obtained landmark results, weathering risks and tests across political, economic, ideological, and environmental domains. As a result, the country witnesses historic achievements and profound changes, propelling China into a new phase of building a modern socialist country in all respects. The past decade marked three major events of great immediate importance and profound historical significance for the cause of the Party and the people: we embraced the 100th anniversary of the founding of the CPC; we ushered in a new era of socialism with Chinese characteristics; and we eradicated absolute poverty and finished building a moderately prosperous society in all respects, thus completing the First Centenary Goal.

The great changes of the new era have established a solid groundwork for propelling the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation through the comprehensive advancement of Chinese path to modernization. Over the past decade, China's economic prowess has witnessed a remarkable leap. Per capita GDP doubled from RMB 39,800 to RMB 81,000, while the total GDP surged from RMB 54 trillion to RMB 114 trillion in 2022. China's share in the global economy stood at 18.5% in 2021, marking a substantial increase of 7.2 percentage points and consolidating its position as the world's second- largest economy. Meanwhile, the manufacturing industry's value-added accounted for over 28% globally, maintaining its position as the world leader. In 2021, China led global charts for international patent applications for three consecutive years, reaching over 69,500 applications. In the same year, it also led in total merchandise trade and foreign investment attraction, with total imports and exports reaching USD 6.1 trillion and actual foreign investment utilization hitting USD 173.5 billion. Over the years, China has built the world's largest education, social security, and healthcare systems, establishing a robust human capital foundation for modernization endeavors. In 2020, China witnessed the graduation of 8.7 million students from regular universities, with STEM disciplines (related to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) constituting 62% of the total. China has also made significant strides in its ecological endowments, institutional frameworks, and security conditions. As the report to the 20th CPC National Congress proposed, we have acted on the idea that lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets. We have persisted with a holistic and systematic approach to conserving and improving mountain, water, forest, farmland, grassland, and desert ecosystems. China's ecological conservation systems have been improved. This has led to historic, transformative, and comprehensive changes in ecological and environmental protection. Through decisive political initiatives, China has undertaken sweeping reforms, resulting in transformative changes across diverse sectors. Socialism with Chinese characteristics has matured and evolved, substantially augmenting the country's national governance capacity and modernization endeavors. Guided by a holistic perspective on national security, China remains steadfast in safeguarding its sovereignty, security, and developmental interests, leading to a notable overall enhancement of its national security posture.

Mission and Tasks in the New Era

In the report to the 20th CPC National Congress, it was solemnly declared that, "From this day forward, the central task of the Communist Party of China will be to lead the Chinese people of all ethnic groups in a concerted effort to realize the second centenary goal of building China into a great modern socialist country in all respects and to advance the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation on all fronts through a Chinese path to modernization." As General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out in the report to the 19th CPC National Congress, "The original aspiration and the mission of Chinese Communists is to seek happiness for the Chinese people and rejuvenation for the Chinese nation. This original aspiration, this mission, is what inspires Chinese Communists to advance."^[2]In 1921, the 1st CPC National Congress laid out a manifesto outlining the Party's ultimate goal of achieving complet liberation for the Chinese people and all of humanity, presenting the grand ideal of communism. Later, the 2nd CPC National Congress adopted the Party's core programmatic principles, with the highest aim being the realization of communism and the lowest aim being the execution of democratic revolution. In 1925, Mao Zedong expressed in the inaugural issue of the journal Political Weekly, "Why do we need revolution? To liberate the Chinese nation, to establish governance by the people, and to ensure economic prosperity for all." ^[3]At the 7th CPC National Congress, the principle of "wholeheartedly serving the people" was enshrined in the Party Constitution, emphasizing the CPC's commitment to advancing the interests of the Chinese nation and its people. After 28 years of strenuous endeavor, the CPC led the Chinese people to achieve comprehensive national independence and liberation, culminating in the founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Following the PRC's founding, the Party Constitution was amended at the 8th National Congress, emphasizing that the fundamental objective of all Party endeavors is to fulfill the material and cultural needs of the people to the greatest extent possible.

Following the initiation of reform and opening-up, the 12th CPC National Congress highlighted the imperative of advancing socialism with distinct Chinese characteristics and the strategic goal of building a moderately prosperous society. From 1978 to 2021, China's GDP saw an average annual growth rate of 9.2%, surpassing the duration and pace observed of the East Asian miracle witnessed during the period of rapid growth, thereby marking an unprecedented feat in human history. To accomplish the historic mission of poverty alleviation and the realization of a moderately prosperous society in all aspects, the 18th and 19th National Congresses of the CPC prioritized the building of a moderately prosperous society in all respects and securing definitive triumph in this pursuit. On July 1, 2021, General Secretary Xi Jinping declared during the centenary celebration of the CPC that we have built a moderately prosperous society in all respects.^[4]The transformative shifts witnessed over the past decade in the new era serve as monumental milestones in the annals of the Party, the PRC, the era of reform and opening- up, socialist development, and the progress of the Chinese nation. With steadfast conviction, the CPC and the Chinese people are steering the nation toward a momentous transition, progressing from standing tall, attaining prosperity, to becoming stronger as a nation. As reforms progress and socialist modernization deepens, the realization of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation has embarked on an irreversible historical journey. The comprehensive objectives outlined in the report to the 20th CPC National Congress have set forth a precise blueprint for achieving the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation through a Chinese path to modernization.

The Blueprint for Modernization

Achieving the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation stands as the paramount aspiration of the Chinese people in modern times. The Party's second centenary goal calls for building China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious and beautiful by 2049, the centenary of the People's Republic of China. China aims to basically realize socialist modernization by 2035, with overall developmental goals listed as follows:

*Significantly increase economic strength, scientific and technological capabilities, and composite national strength; substantially grow the per capita GDP to be on par with that of a mid- level developed country

*Join the ranks of the world's most innovative countries, with great self-reliance and strength in science and technology

*Build a modernized economy; form a new pattern of development; basically achieve new industrialization, informatization, urbanization, and agricultural modernization.,

*Basically modernize the system and capacity for governance; improve the system for whole-process people's democracy; build a law-based country, government, and society.

*Become a leading country in education, science and technology, talent, culture, sports, and health; significantly enhance national soft power

*Ensure that the people are leading better and happier lives; bring per capita disposable income to new heights; substantially grow the middle-income group as a share of the total population; guarantee equitable access to basic public services; ensure modern standards of living in rural areas; achieve long-term social stability; make more notable and substantive progress in promoting the people's well- rounded development and prosperity for all

*Broadly establish eco-friendly ways of work and life; steadily lower carbon emissions after reaching a peak; fundamentally improve the environment; largely accomplish the goal of building a Beautiful China

*Comprehensively strengthen the national security system and national security capabilities; achieve basic modernization of national defense and the armed forces.

In his report to the 20th CPC National Congress, General Secretary Xi Jinping underscored the significant strides made by the CPC in advancing a Chinese path to modernization, built upon extensive exploration and practical experience tracing back to the founding of the PRC, particularly during the era of reform and opening-up. Since the convening of the 18th CPC National Congress, the Party has witnessed innovative breakthroughs in both theoretical understanding and practical applications. The central theme in the report to the 20th CPC National Congress can be succinctly summarized as follows: the full implementation of Xi Jinping Thought, which serves as the guiding principle for accomplishing two major tasks: leading the Chinese people as the Party's central task to achieve comprehensive socialist modernization and fostering high-quality development as the primary task in building a modern socialist country. The report delivered at the 20th CPC National Congress delineated specific directives across 12 key domains, all centered around the Party's central mission. These include:

1) accelerating the creation of a new development pattern and pursuing high-quality development;

2) invigorating China through science and education and developing a strong workforce for the modernization drive;

3) advancing whole-process people's democracy and ensuring that the people run the country;

4) exercising law-based governance on all fronts and advancing the rule of law in China;

5) building cultural confidence and strength and securing new successes in developing socialist culture;

6) improving the people's wellbeing and raising quality of life;

7) pursuing green development and promoting harmony between humanity and nature;

8) modernizing China's national security system and capacity and safeguarding national security and social stability;

9) achieving the centenary goal of the People's Liberation Army and further modernizing national defense and the military;

10) upholding and improving the policy of One Country, Two Systems and promoting national reunification;

11) promoting world peace and development and building a human community with a shared future;

12) exercising full and rigorous self-governance and advancing the great new project of Party building in the new era.

The Connotation of Chinese Path to Modernization

Distinctive Features of Chinese Path to Modernization

Chinese path to modernization, guided by the CPC, amalgamates common attributes found in modernization endeavors worldwide with distinct Chinese characteristics rooted in its national conditions. The report to the 20th CPC National Congress highlights five key features defining Chinese path to modernization: the modernization of a huge population, the modernization of common prosperity for all, the modernization of material and cultural-ethical advancement, the modernization of harmony between humanity and nature, and the modernization of peaceful development. These features are emblematic of China's historical legacy, natural endowment, strategic objectives, and global significance in the realm of modernization. Given the country's profound historical background, expansive territory, and substantial populace, the essence of its rejuvenation and progress lies in upholding the principles of dialectical materialism, seeking truth from facts, rooting in national conditions, and forging its own path. Modernization cannot be limited to select demographics, locales, or societal facets—it necessitates adherence to and the development of socialism with Chinese characteristics, the promotion of common prosperity for all, ensuring synchronized modernization nationwide, and the holistic advancement progress across material, political, spiritual, social, and ecological dimensions of civilization. In contrast to the historical trajectory of established capitalist countries, which often pursued modernization through exploitative means such as colonialism, imperialistic dominance, and environmental degradation at the expense of other countries, Chinese path to modernization prioritizes peaceful development and harmonious coexistence with nature, embodying a more civilized approach to modernity. Just as the West goes to great lengths to cover up its history of colonial exploitation, it also vigorously champions extreme environmentalism to mask its own exploitation of nature. They unjustly criticize developing countries for the pollution issues inherent in their developmental phases. A case in point is carbon emissions: when assessing per capita cumulative emissions since 1900, the global average stands at 209 tons per person. Comparatively, China registers only 157 tons per person, whereas the United States records a substantially higher figure of 1,218 tons per person, far surpassing China. Similarly, other major developed countries also exceed China by a considerable margin. In contrast, Chinese path to modernization follows a path of peaceful development and harmonious coexistence with nature, epitomizing a civilized approach to modernization. The Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party Over the Past Century underscored this stance, stating that "the Party has led the people in pioneering a uniquely Chinese path to modernization, creating a new model for human advancement, and expanding the channels for developing countries to achieve modernization. This has offered a new option for countries and nations who want to accelerate development while preserving their independence."

The advancement of the Chinese nation toward its great rejuvenation through Chinese path to modernization will bring about a new form of human civilization with profound historical implications on a global scale. The unique nature and immense importance of Chinese path to modernization in the global modernization process are undeniable. During the second plenary session of the 19th CPC Central Committee, General Secretary Xi Jinping highlighted that China is working to achieve modernization for more than 1.4 billion people, a number larger than the combined population of all developed countries in the world today. This transformation will fundamentally reshape the global modernization landscape, marking a monumental event in human history.^[5]Envisioned within the framework of basically achieving modernization by 2035, as outlined in the report to the 20th CPC National Congress, China's per capita national income will notably exceed the threshold for high-income levels by that time, firmly placing the country among high-income economies, and signifying that the proportion of the global population residing within high-income economies will rise from the current 16% to approximately 35%. At that point, not only will the living standards of China's 1.4 billion population see significant improvement, but it will also unlock expanded market prospects and enhanced technological resources for over 50 billion individuals in low- and middle-income countries. Furthermore, it will afford greater access to China's developmental experiences to assist these countries in navigating their own development trajectories, thereby greatly propelling global modernization efforts forward.

Essential Requirements for Chinese Path to Modernization

The report to the 20th CPC National Congress has also articulated the essential requirements for Chinese path to modernization, which include upholding the leadership of the CPC and socialism with Chinese characteristics, pursuing high-quality development, developing whole- process people's democracy, enriching the people's cultural lives, achieving common prosperity for all, promoting harmony between humanity and nature, building a human community with a shared future, and creating a new form of human advancement. These essential requirements are grounded in the distinctive characteristics of Chinese path to modernization. Central to Chinese path to modernization is the upholding and advancement ofsocialism with Chinese characteristics, with the paramount importance attributed to the leadership of the CPC. The foremost point highlighted in the historical experience of the CPC's endeavors over the past century, as summarized in theResolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party Over the Past Century, is the "upholding of the Party's leadership," explicitly stating that "the CPC is the central leading force of our cause. The strong leadership of the Party is the fundamental reason why the Chinese people and Chinese nation have been able to transform their fate in modern times and achieved the great success we see today." In the report to the 20th CPC National Congress, General Secretary Xi Jinping unequivocally stated that "Our Party has a pivotal role in building China into a modern socialist country in all respects and in advancing the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation on all fronts"; and emphasized that "as the largest Marxist governing party in the world, we must always stay alert and determined to tackle the special challenges that a large party like ours faces, so as to maintain the people's support and consolidate our position as the long-term governing party" . He also called on that “all of us in the Party must bear in mind that full and rigorous self- governance is an unceasing endeavor and that self-reform is a journey to which there is no end. We must never slacken our efforts and never allow ourselves to become weary or beaten. We must persevere with full and rigorous self-governance, continue to advance the great new project of Party building in the new era, and use our own transformation to steer social ransformation.”

The specific strategy for Chinese path to modernization encompasses the following elements: pursuing high-quality development, developing whole-process people's democracy, enriching the people's cultural lives, achieving common prosperity for all, promoting harmony between humanity and nature, building a human community with a shared future, and creating a new form of human advancement. This strategy integrates China's unique context with the principles of historical materialism and dialectical materialism, emphasizing the notion that the economic base shapes social structure, while social structures reciprocally influence the economic base. The report to the 20th CPC National Congress expressly identifies high- quality development as the foremost priority in the comprehensive building of a modern socialist country, stressing the importance of promoting the economy both qualitatively and quantitatively. China was a low-income country before 1996, and it firmly joined the ranks of lower middle-income countries in 1999 and then the ranks of upper middle-income countries in 2010. In the years 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010, and 2016, China's per capita national income reached 4.3%, 5.8%, 10.1%, 16.4%, 35.4%, and 67.5% respectively of the corresponding high-income threshold values for those years. This demonstrates a rapid convergence of China's per capita national income toward the high-income threshold at an almost exponential rate. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to effectively implement The Outline of the 14th Five-Year Plan for Economic and Social Development (2021-2025) and Long-Range Objectives through the Year 2035 of the People's Republic of China, which aims to double China's per capita income level or economic aggregate by 2035 compared to its 2020 level, as part of its development objective.

Strategic Steps for Chinese Path to Modernization

The strategic blueprint for building China into a great modern socialist country in all respects unfolds in two stages: basically realizing socialist modernization from 2020 through 2035; building China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful from 2035 through the middle of this century. This strategic framework for China's modernization, known as the "Two- step Strategic Plan" in the new era, is formulated based on historical experience and lessons, current developmental realities, and a commitment to adhering to both the objective laws of development and proactive strategic deployments, which will delineate specific guidelines and policies.

The Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party Since the Founding of the People's Republic of China, adopted atthe sixth plenary session of the 11th CPC Central Committee in 1981, underscored the importance of conducting economic development in accordance with China's unique circumstances, progressively and in stages, to achieve the goal of modernization. Over the past 40 years, the CPC has steadfastly adhered to the guiding principles set forth in the Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party Since the Founding of the People's Republic of China. At the 13th CPC National Congress, a Three-Step Approach was identified as the economic development trajectory: the first step was to double the gross national product (GNP) from 1980, ensuring the fulfillment of people's basic needs; the second step aimed to double the GNP again by the end of the 20th century, achieving a moderately prosperous society; and the third step was to reach the level of moderately developed countries by the mid-21st century, significantly improving people's living standards and essentially achieving modernization. By 2000, China's GNP had increased more than fourfold compared to 1980. Following this, the 15th CPC National Congress further subdivided the Three-Step Approach into three phases and outlined specific timelines, notably emphasizing the Two Centenaries. The 20th CPC National Congress segmented the second centenary goal into two stages for implementation. In the report to the 20th CPC National Congress, China's overarching developmental goal by 2035 was once again clearly defined, along with the aim to build a great modern socialist country grounded on basically realizing modernization.

China's 14th Five-Year Plan for the national economic and social development marks a groundbreaking alignment with the long-range objectives through the year 2035. The next five years will be crucial for getting our efforts to build a modern socialist country in all respects off to a good start. Our main objectives and tasks for this period are as follows:

*Make breakthroughs in promoting high-quality economic development; achieve greater self-reliance and strength in science and technology; make major progress in creating a new pattern of development and building a modernized economy

*Make new strides in reform and opening up; make further progress in modernizing China's system and capacity for governance; further improve the socialist market economy; put in place new systems for a higher-standard open economy

*Further enhance the institutions, standards, and procedures of whole- process people's democracy; improve the system of socialist rule of law with Chinese characteristics

*Enrich the intellectual and cultural lives of our people; enhance the cohesion of the Chinese nation and the appeal of Chinese culture

*Ensure personal income grows basically in step with economic growth and pay rises in tandem with increases in productivity; ensure much more equitable access to basic public services; develop a better multi- tiered social security system

*Substantially improve urban and rural living environments; make notable progress in building a Beautiful China

*Further consolidate national security; fulfill the goals for the centenary of the People's Liberation Army in 2027; make solid progress in building a Peaceful China

*Further increase China's international standing and influence; enable China to play a greater role in global governance

Theoretical Connotation of Chinese Path to Modernization

Marxism is the foundational guiding ideology upon which the CPC and China are founded and thrive. The report to the 20th CPC National Congress marked an elevation of theoretical innovation to an unprecedented position. In the second part, General Secretary Xi Jinping systematically expounded on opening up new horizons for Marxism tailored to China's conditions and contemporary demands, emphasizing that the adaptation of Marxism to China's conditions and contemporary demands is a process of seeking, revealing, and applying truth. Just as there are no bounds to practice, there is no end to theoretical innovation. Chinese Communists are keenly aware that only by amalgamating the fundamental principles of Marxism with China's unique realities and rich traditional culture and by applying dialectical and historical materialism can we offer accurate solutions to the major questions presented by our times, identified through practical experience, and ensure the perpetual vigor and relevance of Marxism. Through continuous theoretical, practical, and institutional innovation, the CPC has effectively propelled and broadened the process of Chinese path to modernization, consistently enhancing and advancing Xi Jinping Thought.

Chinese path to modernization also embodies a generalized theoretical essence. Viewed through the lens of new structural economics, it can be encapsulated as "one center, three basic points" . "One center" is anchored in the endowment structure, reflecting a country's specific conditions and the foundational principles of Marxist dialectical materialism, serving asthe basis for advancing modernization. In essence, Chinese modernization harmonizes the core tenets of Marxism with China's unique realities and its rich traditional culture. Meanwhile, the "three basic points" are a country's development, transformation, and operation based on its endowment structure. This underscores the historical materialist principle that "the economic base shapes the superstructure, which then in turn influences the economic base," within the context of a country's distinct social form. This is exemplified by the 10 affirmations, the 14 commitments, and the 13 areas of achievement that were articulated at the 19th CPC National Congress and the Sixth Plenary Session of the 19th CPC Central Committee. Contrary to mainstream modernization theories originating from Western developed countries, which draw primarily from the experiences of those countries and idealize the economic base and superstructure of developed countries as the pinnacle of modernization, this theory treats the disparities between developed and developing countries merely as quantitative differences, overlooking any qualitative distinctions, and considering the differences between developing and developed countries as deviations to be rectified. However, developing and developed countries exhibit both quantitative differences and qualitative distinctions. Marx's historical materialism reveals the differing "economic bases" arising from these distinctions, which subsequently shape the corresponding "superstructures." These distinctions should not be simplistically viewed as mere deviations to be rectified. Owing to inherent structural differences in industry, technology, physical infrastructure, and institutional arrangements arising from their endowment structures, the transition from a lower to a higher structural level is central to the matters related to development. Similarly, transitioning from a distorted structure to an undistorted one pertains to the matter of transformation, or reform. Moreover, countries at different developmental stages exhibit unique modes of economic and social operation based on their respective structural conditions.

The Primary Task of Chinese Path to Modernization

Prioritizing High-Quality Development As the Key to Achieving Chinese Path to Modernization

The central task of the CPC is to lead the Chinese people of all ethnic groups in a concerted effort to realize the Second Centenary Goal of building China into a great modern socialist country in all respects and to advance the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation on all fronts through a Chinese path to modernization.. In this regard, prioritizing high-quality development stands as the foremost objective in the comprehensive building of a modern socialist country. The CPC has consistently emphasized that development is the paramount focus of governance and national revitalization, and has also soberly acknowledged that without a robust material and technological foundation, the comprehensive building of a strong modern socialist country is unattainable. The report to the 20th CPC National Congress elaborately explains the principal aspects, critical junctures, and areas requiring attention in achieving high-quality development within the historical framework of Chinese path to modernization. In summary, high-quality development means fully, accurately, and comprehensively implementing the new development concept in the new developmental stage, maintaining the course of reform in the socialist market economy, upholding high-level openness, and accelerating the establishment of a new development paradigm with domestic circulation as the core, complemented by mutually reinforcing domestic and international circulations. The effectiveness of high-quality development is directly related to whether the great endeavor of modernization can be realized as scheduled.

The report to the 20th CPC National Congress also elaborated on the priorities for high-quality development across five dimensions.

First, it underscored the imperative of concurrently advancing both the public and non-public sectors within the economy, emphasizing the synergistic fusion of an efficient market and a capable government, deemed essential for building a high-standard socialist market economy, stating that "We must uphold and improve China's basic socialist economic systems. We must unswervingly consolidate and develop the public sector and unswervingly encourage, support, and guide the development of the non- public sector. We will work to see that the market plays the decisive role in resource allocation and that the government better plays its role. In pursuing economic growth, we must continue to focus on the real economy. We will advance new industrialization and move faster to boost China's strength in manufacturing, product quality, aerospace, transportation, cyberspace, and digital development."

Second, it emphasized that the continuous development of productive forces is fundamental to the building of a strong modern socialist country. Therefore, the Chinese nation should modernize the industrial system, stating that "In pursuing economic growth, we must continue to focus on the real economy. We will advance new industrialization and move faster to boost China's strength in manufacturing, product quality, aerospace, transportation, cyberspace, and digital development."

Third, it acknowledged that rural modernization is the most challenging and arduous task within the comprehensive endeavor of building a modern socialist country. Therefore, the Chinese nation must comprehensively promote rural revitalization, "put agricultural and rural development first, and consolidate and expand the achievements in poverty alleviation, move faster to build up China's strength in agriculture and steadily promote the revitalization of businesses, talent, culture, ecosystems, and organizations in the countryside." The nation must also "reinforce the foundations for food security on all fronts, ensure that China's total area of farmland does not fall below the redline of 120 million hectares, and that China's food supply remains firmly in its own hands."

Fourth, it delineated that coordinated development serves as the linchpin for achieving socialist modernization, stating that "We will thoroughly implement the coordinated regional development strategy, major regional strategies, the functional zoning strategy, and the new urbanization strategy. We will improve the distribution of the major productive forces and develop a regional economic layout and a territorial space system that complement each other's strengths and promote high-quality development."

Fifth, the process of opening-up remains an inexhaustible driver for the development of socialist modernization. Therefore, we must "promote high- standard opening-up; steadily expand institutional opening-up with regard to rules, regulations, management, and standards; accelerate China's transformation into a trader of quality; promote the high-quality development of the Belt and Road Initiative; and endeavor to preserve the diversity and stability of the international economic landscape and economic and trade relations.

Understanding High-Quality Development Through the Lens of New Structural Economics

The 19th CPC National Congress has emphasized the importance of high-quality economic development. Nonetheless, several sectors hold misconceptions regarding the essence of such development. One common misconception is the belief that high-quality development contradicts the necessity for maintaining reasonable rates of economic growth. Another prevalent misconception is the narrow perspective on high-quality development, failing to connect it to the modernization endeavor. Positioned as the primary task in building a modern socialist country in all respects, high-quality development encompasses facets of a new developmental phase, an innovative mindset, and a pioneering framework for progress. It calls for enhancing the quality and efficiency of economic growth while ensuring a reasonable increase in quantity. The pursuit of socialist modernization by 2035, as outlined in the plan since 2020, underscores the imperative of maintaining steady growth rates. General Secretary Xi Jinping, in elucidating the formulation of The Central Committee's Suggestions on The Outline of the 14th Five-Year Plan for Economic and Social Development (2021-2025) and Long-Range Objectives through the Year 2035 of the People's Republic of China, explicitly stated, "After careful research and analysis, the drafting group believes that China's economy has the potential to sustain long-term stable growth based on its economic development capacity and conditions. By the end of the 14th Five-Year Plan period, achieving the current standard of a high-income country and doubling economic output or per capita income by 2035 is entirely feasible."^[6]This underscores the need to maintain an approximate economic growth rate of 4.7% between 2021 and 2035, with prospects for sustaining this trajectory over the next 15 years.

Since the initiation of the reform and opening-up, China has seen significant changes in its comparative advantages, leading to a noticeable shift in its developmental trajectory. President Xi Jinping highlighted in 2013, during the APEC CEO Summit, that China's economy had entered a new developmental phase characterized by profound transformations and structural adjustments.^[7] Subsequently, General Secretary Xi Jinping introduced the new developmental philosophy at the fifth plenary session of the 18th CPC Central Committee in 2015, which later formed the foundational framework for the country's 13th Five-Year Plan.^[8] Given that there arises a necessity for the new developmental philosophy to adapt effectively as the developmental stage and the primary contradiction evolve, with the realization of the historic mission to build a moderately prosperous society in all respects, the primary contradiction facing Chinese society has evolved. What the Chinese nation now faces is the contradiction between unbalanced and inadequate development and the people's ever-growingneeds for a better life, as stated at the 19th CPC National Congress. Guiding the transition of the development paradigm through the application of the new developmental philosophy is a strategic choice.

Furthermore, as China's primary contradiction shifts, the international contradiction within the global development landscape also evolves. With China's economic scale growing (representing about 18.5% of the global economy) and witnessing an enhanced economic structure (e.g., the service industry accounting for over 50% of the total share in 2015), the external impulse from the dual circulation model of markets and resources outside China is diminishing, and economic growth increasingly hinges on domestic economic cycles. The strategy to boost domestic demand, accompanied by the deepening of supply-side structural reforms and the establishment of a new development paradigm, reflects the prevailing economic development trends and represents a strategic imperative for the current stage. Therefore, in 2020, General Secretary Xi Jinping first proposed to build a new development paradigm during the seventh meeting of the Central Commission for Financial and Economic Affairs (CCFEA).^[9]

Leveraging Advantages and Reinforcing Key Elements for High- Quality Development

As China progresses through its developmental stages, with evolving comparative advantages and upgraded industrial structures, education, science and technology, and human resources become the foundational and strategic pillars for building a modern socialist country in all respects. The Chinese nation must regard science and technology as the primary productive force, talent as the primary resource, and innovation as the primary driver of growth. China will fully implement the strategy for invigorating the country through science and education, the workforce development strategy, and the innovation-driven development strategy. China will open up new areas and new arenas in development and steadily foster new growth drivers and new strengths.

In the pursuit of fostering common prosperity for a population exceeding 1.4 billion, China's prospects for high-quality development are vast and brimming with potential. Therefore, it is essential to fully capitalize on three core strengths (the late-mover advantage, the merit of overtaking through lane changes, and the benefits of a new system for mobilizing resources nationwide), so as to reinforce the three crucial aspects of high- quality development, i.e., narrowing socioeconomic disparities, spearheading innovation, and fostering self-reliance and empowerment. By prioritizing breakthroughs in the primary objective of building a strong modern socialist country, we can pave a clear path to success.

China must capitalize on the late-mover advantages in its new developmental phase to narrow the gap with developed countries. While China's income level approaches that of high-income countries, there remains a significant gap with those in Europe and America, presenting ample potential for introduction, digestion, absorption, and re-innovation. Despite potential obstacles, our path to catching up is clear. This form of innovation comes with relatively low costs and minimal risks, facilitating swift catch-up by leveraging the late-mover advantages during our development process. Moreover, China's endowment conditions upon entering the new developmental phase inherently possess a comparative advantage for high-quality catching up. The key to utilizing the late-moveradvantages lies in fostering high-level openness. The report to the 20th CPC National Congress underscores the importance of leveraging the strengths of China's enormous market to attract global resources and production factors with our strong domestic economy and amplify the interplay between domestic and international markets and resources. This will position us to improve the level and quality of trade and investment cooperation. The report advocates for making appropriate reductions to the negative list for foreign investment, protecting the rights and interests of foreign investors in accordance with the law and fostering a world-class business environment that is market-oriented, law-based, and internationalized.

In the new developmental phase, it is crucial to accelerate the utilization of our advantages in overtaking by changing lanes to achieve leading breakthroughs. In the emerging economy centered on human capital investment and data resource development, China stands on par with developed countries and possesses unique advantages such as abundant human capital, a large domestic market, a diverse array of industries, and extensive application scenarios, as evidenced by the emergence of a large number of unicorn companies and the rapid rise of the digital economy in China. According to the White Paper on China's Digital Economy Development (2020), as of the end of 2020, the proportion of China's digital economy in GDP had reached 38.6%.. The key to leveraging the opportunity to overtake through lane changes lies in implementing the workforce development strategy. The report to the 20th CPC National Congress stressed the need to speed up work to build a strong educational system, greater scientific and technological strength, and a quality workforce. China will continue efforts to cultivate talents for the Party and the country and comprehensively improve our ability to nurture talents at home. All this will see us producing first-class innovators and attracting the brightest minds from all over.

During the new developmental phase, it is also imperative to accelerate the utilization of a new system to mobilize resources across the nation, thereby fostering self-reliance and bolstering capabilities, addressing critical bottlenecks, and ensuring national development security. The report to the 20th CPC National Congress emphasized that, setting our sights on the global frontiers of science and technology, national economic development, the country's major needs, and public health and safety, efforts must be accelerated to achieve greater self-reliance and strength in science and technology. Aligned with China's strategic needs, there is a need to concentrate resources on original and pioneering scientific and technological research to achieve breakthroughs in core technologies in key fields. Additionally, China should improve the system in which the Party Central Committee exercises unified leadership over science and technology work, improve the new system for mobilizing resources nationwide to make key technological breakthroughs. China will boost its strength in strategic science and technology and better allocate innovation resources.

Prioritization in Addressing Weak Links in High-Quality Development

The tensions between China and the United States, stemming from unprecedented changes in a century, are likely to persist for a long period. However, despite facing challenges such as U.S. containment and strategic suppression, there is no need for undue pessimism, and the key lies in upholding our strategic resolve for sustained development. China harborsthe potential to sustain an average annual growth rate of about 8% from 2020 to 2035. If the country can sustain an annual growth rate of 5% to 6%, then socialist modernization can, to a large extent, be basically achieved by 2035. Subsequently, between 2035 and 2050, China will still maintain an estimated growth potential of around 6%. Should a growth rate of 4% be attained, China's per capita GDP could reach half that of the United States by 2049, with a total GDP being twice that of the United States.

In this context, the per capita GDP, economic scale, industries, and technology levels of the "three cities and five provinces" (i.e., Guangdong Province, Jiangsu Province, Zhejiang Province, Fujian Province, and Shandong Province, along with municipalities of Shanghai, Beijing, and Tianjin) in economically developed regions, suggesting that the United States will no longer hold a technical advantage over China. This shift could lead to a new balance in China—U.S. relations. In fact, as of 2020, the aggregate economic output of the seven most modernized coastal provinces, led by the Yangtze River Delta, the Guangdong—Hong Kong—Macao Greater Bay Area, and the Beijing—Tianjin—Hebei region, exceeded 40% of the national total. Similarly, the aggregate economic output of the 35 most modernized provincial capitals and sub-provincial cities, led by Shanghai, Beijing, Shenzhen, Guangzhou, Chongqing, and Chengdu, also surpassed 40% of the national total. The current overall level has, in fact, reached that of a moderately developed country.

On the journey of building a modern socialist country in all respects, China faces the real challenge of addressing our own weaknesses. At present, the monthly disposable income of the poorest 40% of households remains below RMB 1,000 per person, encompassing approximately 600 million people. The majority of this low-income demographic is concentrated in rural areas across the central and western regions, among migrant workers, and a small portion of low-income households in some cities. China still accommodates over 500 million rural residents and nearly 300 million migrant workers, with more than 60% of the employed populace possessing education levels at or below junior high school. The economic disparities are evident, with regions like Hebei, Guizhou, Guangxi, Heilongjiang, and Gansu having per capita GDP that is below 30% of Beijing's. Similarly, the per capita regional GDP in Ningxia, Xinjiang, Henan, Yunnan, Xizang, Qinghai, and Jilin is less than 35% of Beijing's. Beyond the developed urban clusters, over 350 million people live in remote areas. The most challenging and arduous tasks in realizing a comprehensively modern socialist China persist within our rural landscapes. Therefore, rural revitalization, employment opportunities for people's livelihood, and coordinated regional development are the three weak links of high-quality development. They also represent the potential for comprehensive modernization.

The report to the 20th CPC National Congress stressed that China should advance rural revitalization across the board and continue to put agricultural and rural development first and pursue integrated development of urban and rural areas. To this end, China should implement an employment-first strategy, fostering high-quality and full employment. Thorough implementation of the coordinated regional development strategy, major regional strategies, the functional zoning strategy, and the new urbanization strategy is also essential. China will improve the distribution of its major productive forces, fostering a regional economic layout and territorial spatial system that complement each other's strengths and facilitate high-quality development. Leveraging the influence of urban clusters and metropolitan areas, the country will foster coordinated development among large, medium, and small cities, advancingurbanization centered on county seats. To achieve nationwide socialist modernization by 2035, a concerted effort at both national and regional levels that prioritize modernization for high-quality growth and ensure a harmonious spread of modernization is imperative.

Empowering National Rejuvenation Through Theoretical Innovation

In his article "Development Economics and Economic Development of Developing Countries–On the Theoretical Reference of Development Economics in the Development of Socialist Market Economy," General Secretary Xi Jinping advocated over two decades ago for the exploration of a Chinese path to modernization theory, stating that "We seek theoretical reference from development economics based on Western economics not only to gain insights into the trajectory of the socialist market economy but, more importantly, to establish a socialist development economics rooted in China's unique economic, political, cultural, historical, and philosophical contexts. This imperative aligns with the historical trajectory and the demands of the times. We hope that socialist development economics can ‘blossoms on its branches and even outside the wall.’”^[10]New structural economics, guided by Marxist principles, aims to amalgamate modern economic methods, summarize Chinese modernization experiences, and establish an independent theoretical framework to develop a generalized modernization theory concerning national development, transformation, and operation. This pioneering endeavor has been emulated and proven effective by several other developing and transitioning countries, symbolizing the metaphorical "blossoming outside the wall." The imperative now lies in expediting the assimilation and application of the spirit delineated in the 20th CPC National Congress, under the guidance of Xi Jinping Thought, which involves hastening autonomous theoretical breakthroughs in economics to support the dual objectives of Chinese path to modernization and high-quality development, thereby contributing to the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.

[1] This article was published in the sixth issue of Economic Commentary in 2022 under the original title: "The Blueprint, Connotation, and Primary Task of Chinese Path to Modernization—An Interpretation Through the Lens of New Structural Economics".

[2] Editor's note: "Secure a Decisive Victory in Building a Moderately Prosperous

Society in All Respects and Strive for the Great Success of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era–Delivered at the 19th National Congress of the

Communist Party of China" (Reference: http://www.gov.cn/zhuanti/2017-10/27/content_5234876.htm)

[3] Editor's note: Reference: http://dangshi.people.cn/n1/2021/0715/c436975-32158396.html

[4] Editor's note: "The Grand Celebration of the Centenary of the Founding of the

Communist Party of China Held With Xi Jinping Delivering an Important

Speech"(Reference: http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2021-07/01/content_5621846.htm)

[5] Editor's note: "The Establishment of a New Development Paradigm Is Inevitable for Implementing the New Developmental Philosophy in the New Developmental Phase" (Reference: https://www.ccps.gov.cn/xtt/202208/t20220831_154802.shtml)

[6] Editor's note: "Explanation on The Central Committee's Suggestions on The Outline of the 14th Five-Year Plan for Economic and Social Development (2021-2025) and Long-Range Objectives through the Year 2035 of the People's Republic of China"(Reference: https://www.qinfeng.gov.cn/info/1022/135345.htm)

[7] Editor's note: Speech by President Xi Jinping at the 2013 APEC CEO Summit(Reference:http://www.xinhuanet.com//world/2013-10/08/c_125490697.htm)

[8] Editor's note: Reference: http://theory.people.com.cn/n1/2022/1010/c40531-32542078. html

[9] Editor's note: Reference:http://theory.people.com.cn/n1/2022/1027/c40531- 32553053.html

[10] Editor's note: Jinping Xi. "Development Economics and Economic Development of Developing Countries– On the Theoretical Reference of Development Economics in the Development of Socialist Market Economy," Academic Review 9, (2001): 4–6.